Q & A : Physiology (A Student Note Book Collection)

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Q & A : Physiology (A Student Note Book Collection)

At what concentration is the transport mechanism for glucose saturated?
300 mg/dL
Define effective renal plasma flow.
ERPF = U (PAH) x V/P (PAH) = C (PAH)
Define filtration fraction.
FF = GFR/ RPF
Define free water clearance.
C(H2O) = V- C(osm)
Define GFR.
GFR = U(inulin) x V/P (inulin) = C (inulin) GFR also equals the difference in (osmotic pressure of the glomerular capillary minus Bowman's space) and (hydrostatic pressure of the glomerular capsule minus Bowman's space).
Define renal blood flow.
RBF = RPF/1 - Hct
Define renal clearance.
Cx = UxV/Px The volume of plasma from which the substance is cleared completely per unit time.
Define urine flow rate.
V = urine flow rate C (osm) = U(osm)V/P(osm)
How are amino acids cleared in the kidney?
Reabsorption occurs by at least 3 distinct carrier systems, with competitive inhibition within each group.
How do NSAIDs cause renal failure?
By inhibiting the production of prostaglandins which normally keep the afferent arterioles vasodilated to maintain GFR
How high can the osmolarity of the medulla reach?
1200-1400 mOsm
How is ICF measured?
ICF = TBW - ECF
How is interstitial volume measured?
Interstitial volume = ECF - PV
How is PAH secreted?
Via secondary active transport
How is PAH transport mediated?
Mediated by a carrier system for organic acids
How much of the ECF is interstitial fluid?
Three-fourths
How much of the ECF is plasma?
One-fourth
How much of the total body water is part of intracellular fluid?
Two-thirds
How much of the total body water is part of the extracellular fluid?
One-third
If clearance of substance X is equal to GFR, what occurs?
There is no net secretion or reabsorption
If clearance of substance X is greater than GFR, what occurs?
Net tubular secretion of X
If clearance of substance X is less than GFR, what occurs?
Net tubular reabsorption of X
T/F. Secondary active transport of amino acids is saturable.
TRUE
What 3 layers form the glomerular filtration barrier?
1. Fenestrated capillary endothelium 2. Fused basement membrane with heparan sulfate 3. Epithelial layer consisting of podocyte foot processes
What actions does ADH have on the kidney?
-Increase water permeability of principle cells in collecting ducts -Increase urea absorption in CD -Increase Na/K/2Cl transporter in the thick ascending limb
What actions does AII have on the kidney?
-Contraction of efferent arteriole increasing GFR -Increased Na and HCO3 reabsorption in proximal tubule
What actions does aldo have on the kidneys?
-Increased Na reabsorption in distal tubule -Increased K secretion in DT -Increased H ion secretion in DT
What actions does ANP have on the kidney?
-Decreased Na reabsorption -Increased GFR
What actions does PTH have on the kideny?
-Increased Ca reabsorption -Decreased phosphate reabsorption -Increase 1,25-(OH)2 Vit D production
What activates 1 alpha-hydroxylase?
PTH
What are the 4 actions of angiotensin II?
1. Vasoconstriction 2. Release of aldo from adrenal cortex 3. Release of ADH from posterior pituitary 4. Stimulates hypothalamus to increase thirst
What are the 4 endocrine functions of the kidney?
1. EPO release 2. Vitamin D conversion 3. Renin release 4. Prostaglandins release
What are the consequences of a loss in the charge barrier?
-Albuminuria -Hypoproteinemia -Generalized edema -Hyperlipidemia
What competitively inhibits the carrier system for PAH?
Probenecid
What constricts the efferent arteriole?
Angiotensin II
What dilates the renal afferent arteriole?
Prostaglandins
What do the collecting ducts reabsorb in exchange for K or H?
Na ions
What does renin do?
Cleave angiotensinogen into angiotensin I
What does the anterior pituitary secrete?
-FSH and LH -ACTH -GH -TSH -MSH -Prolactin
What does the beta subunit do?
The beta subunit determines hormone specificity
What does the early distal convoluted tubule actively reabsorb?
-Na ions -Cl ions
What does the posterior pituitary secrete?
ADH and oxytocin
What does the secretion of prostaglandins from the kidney do?
Vasodilates the afferent arterioles to increase GFR
What does the thick ascending loop of Henle actively reabsorb?
-Na ions -K ions -Cl ions
What does the thick descending loop of Henle indirectly reabsorb?
-Mg ion -Ca ions
What effect does constriction of the efferent arteriole have?
-Decreased RPF -Increased GFR -FF increases
What effect does dilation of the afferent arteriole have?
-Increased RPF -Increased GFR - FF remains constant
What enzyme converts 25-OH Vit D to 1,25-(OH)2 Vit D?
1alpha-hydroxylase
What happens to glucose in the kidneys when glucose is at a normal level?
Glucose is completely reabsorbed in the proximal tubule.
What hormones act on the kidney?
1. ADH 2. Aldosterone 3. Angiotensin II 4. Atrial natriurtic Peptide 5. PTH
What inhibits constriction of the efferent arteriole by AII?
ACE inhibitors
What inhibits dilation of the afferent arteriole by prostaglandins?
NSAIDS
What is an important clinical clue to diabetes?
Glucosuria
What is angiotensin II's overall function?
To increase intravascular volume and increase blood pressure
What is passively reabsorbed in the thin descending loop of Henle?
Water via medullary hypertonicity (impermeable to sodium)
What is reabsorbed in the early distal tubule under the control of PTH?
Ca ions
What is the function of the early proximal convoluted tubule?
Reabsorbs all of the glucose and amino acids and most of the bicarbonate, sodium, and water
What is the oncotic pressure of Bowman's space?
Zero
What is the thick ascending loop of Henle impermeable to?
Water
What is the threshold for glucose reabsorption in the proximal tubule?
200 mg/dL
What may act as a 'check' on the renin-angiotensin system in heart failure?
ANP
What part of the nephron secretes ammonia?
Early proximal convoluted tubule
What part of the pituitary is derived from neuroectoderm?
Posterior pituitary
What percentage of the body is water?
0.6
What regulates the reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts?
ADH
What secretes renin?
JG cells
What stimulates ADH secretion?
-Increased plasma osmolarity -Greatly decreased blood volume
What stimulates aldosterone secretion?
-Decreased blood volume (via AII) -Increased plasma K concentration
What stimulates angiotensin secretion?
Decreased blood volume (via renin)
What stimulates ANP secretion?
Increased atrial pressure
What stimulates EPO release?
Hypoxia
What stimulates PTH secretion?
Decreased plasma ca concentration
What stimulates renin release?
1. Decreased renal arterial pressure 2. Increased renal nerve discharge (Beta 1 effect)
What subunit do TSH, LH, FSH and hCG have in common?
Alpha subunit
What symptom is present once threshold is reached?
Glucosuria
What type of tissue is the anterior pituitary derived from?
Oral ectoderm
What value is used clinically to represent GFR?
Creatinine clearance
What variables are needed to calculate free water clearance?
-Urine flow rate -Urine osmolarity -Plasma Osmolarity
Where does ACE convert AI to AII?
Primarily the lung capillaries
Where does secondary active transport of amino acids occur?
In the proximal tubule
Where is EPO secreted?
Endothelial cells of the peritubular capillaries (kidney)
Where is paraaminohippuric acid secreted?
Proximal tubule
Which barrier is lost in nephrotic syndrome?
Charge barrier
Which layer filters by negative charge?
Fused basement membrane
Which layer filters by size?
Fenestrated capillary endothelium
Why does the nephron secrete ammonia?
Acts As a buffer for secreted H ions
Why is inulin sued to measure GFR?
Because it is freely filtered and is neither absorbed or secreted
Why is PAH used to calculate RPF?
PAH is secreted and filtered.
A 21-Beta-hydroxylase deficiency will result in what hormone deficiencies/excesses?
Decreased cortisol and mineralocorticoids (hypotension, hyperkalemia) Increased sex hormones (masculinization)
A deficiency of 17-alpha hydroxylase will result in an decrease in what hormone(s)?
Decreased sex hormones and cortisol
A deficiency of 17-alpha hydroxylase will result in an increase in what hormone(s)?
Aldosterone Produces hypertension, hypokalemia
A dopaminergic antagonist would be expected to have what effect prolactin secretion?
Stimulates prolactin secretion
A maturing graafian follicule can be found at what stage of the menstrual cycle?
During the proliferative phase (Around Day 7)
Angiotensin II has what effect on the adrenal cortex?
Stimulates aldosterone production by enhancing the activity of aldosterone synthase
Calcitonin's actions (synergize/oppose) the actions of PTH.
Oppose. Calcitonin acts faster than PTH to decrease serum Ca2+ levels.
Decreased cortisol levels as in any of the congenital adrenal hyperplasias will have what effect on ACTH?
ACTH levels will be increased contributing to increased skin pigmentation
Decreased phosphate will have what effect on Vit D?
Increased activated Vit D.
During the 2nd and 3rd trimester, one would expect the corpus luteum to be?
Degenerated. Shortly after the first trimester, the placenta makes estriol and progesterone.
Estradiol is converted from what precursor by what enzyme?
Aromatase converts Testosterone to Estradiol.
Estrogen is produced in what 4 locations in the body?
Corpus luteum, placenta, adrenal cortex, and testes
Estrogen levels are low/med/high during the just before the peak of the LH surge?
High. Estrogen switches to positive feedback of LH from negative so both increase.
Estrogens have what effect of LH secretion?
Complex effects. Early on estrogen has a negative effect that switches to positve just before the LH surge.
Estrogens have what effect of the follicle?
Estrogens stimulate growth of the follicle
Failure of brain maturation due to lack of thyroid hormone is known as?
Cretinism
Finasteride inhibits what step in testosterone metabolism?
Converstion of testosterone to DHT by 5-alpha reductase
Follicular growth is fastest during what part of the menstrual cycle?
During the second week od the proliferative phase (Days 7-14)
FSH stimulates what cells in the male?
Sertoli cells (spermatogenesis)
Hypocalcemia will have what effect on Vit D metabolism?
Decreased Ca2+ will increase PTH which will stimulate the kidney to produce more activated Vit D.
In addition to peripheral conversion, DHT is also produced in the?
Prostate
In what organ is Vitamin D3 produced?
The skin. Vit D requires sun exposure (UV light and heat)
Is testosterone considered to be anabolic or catabolic overall?
Anabolic
LH levels would be low/med/high at the time of ovulation (Day 14)
Low. The LH surge has already declined
LH stimulates what cells in the male?
Leydig cells (testosterone synthesis)
Name the two primary insulin independent organs?
Brain and RBC's take up glucose independent of insulin
Order the following with the most potent first: testosterone, androstenedione. DHT
DHT > testosterone > androstenedione
Order the following with the most potent first: estrone, estradiol, estriol.
Estradiol > estrone > estriol
Phosphate reabsortion in the kidneys is inhibited by what hormone?
PTH
Progesterone has what effect on body temperature?
Increases body temperature
Progestorone is used in combination with estrogen for what reason?
To decrease the risk of endometrial cancer associated with unopposed estrogen therapy
Prolactin has what effect on ovulation?
Prolactin inhibits ovulation by inhibiting the release/synthess of GnRH from the hypothalamus
PTH causes increased calcium reabsorption in what part of the kidney?
DCT
PTH is produced by what cell type?
Chief cells of the parathyroid glands
Sertoli cells stimulate spermatogenesis by producing what 2 factors in response to FSH?
Androgen-binding protein (ABP) - concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous tubules Inhibin - inhibits FSH secretion fro the ant pit
T/F - Glycolisis is promoted by the thyroid hormones
False. Thyroid hormones increase blood glucose levels by stimulating glycolgenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
T/F - PTH stimulates both osteoclasts and osteoblasts?
True
T/F - Testosterone is the most active androgen in males and females?
False. 5-alpha reductase activates testosterone to DHT which is the most active androgen.
Testosterone acts as a negative inhibitor on what hormone from the brain?
GnRH
Testosterone is synthesized in what two locations?
Testis Adrenal Cortex
The hormone with the highest concentration during the secretory phase is?
Progesterone
The key inhibitor of prolactin release is?
Dopamine secreted from the hypothalamus Bromocriptine (Dopamine agonist has the same effect)
The parathyroid glands come from what embryonic structures?
The 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouches
The primary estrogen produced by the ovary is?
Estradiol
The primary estrogen produced by the placenta is?
Estriol
Thick mucous production is the result of what sex hormone?
Progesterone Decreases sperm entry into the uterus
Throid Stimulating Immunoglobulin results in what disease?
Graves Disease (hyperthroidism)
Thyroid hormones acts synergistically with what hormone with respect to bone growth?
GH
TRH is produced in what region of the brain?
Hypothalamus
TSH levels in a hypothroid patient would be? Free T4?
Elevated TSH Decreased free T4
Unlike estrogen, what effect does progesterone have on the myometrium?
Progesterone decreases myometrial excitability to help maintain the pregnancy/facilitate fertilization
Vit D deficiency in kids cause what disease? Adults?
Rickets in kids Osteomalacia in adults
What 2 conditions other than pregnancy increase hCG?
Hydatidiform moles in women or choriocarcinoma
What adrenergic effects do the thyroid hormones have?
Beta-adrenergic effects
What are the symptoms of menopause?
HAVOC H = Hot flashes A V = Atrophy of the Vagina O = Osteoporosis C = Coronary Artery Disease
What cells produce calcitonin?
Parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid
What does an elevated progesterone level indicate?
Ovulation
What effect do androgens have on growth of long bones.
During puberty, testosterone stimulates bone growth but eventually causes closure of the ephyseal plates
What effect do estrogens have on the endometrium? Myometrium?
Stimulate endometrial proliferation Increase myometrial excitability
What effect do estrogens have on the liver?
Increase hepatic synthesis of transport proteins
What effect do the thyroid hormones have on cardiac output? Heart rate? Contractility? Stroke Volume? Respiratory Rate?
Thyroid hormones increase: CO HR SV contractility and RR
What effect does Ca2+ have on bone?
Stimulates bone resorption of calcium.
What effect does progesterone have on FSH? On LH?
Progesterone is inhibitory to both gonadotrophins
What effect does progesterone have on the endometrium?
Progesterone stimulates the endometrial glands to become secretory and increases spiral artery development
What effect does PTH have on bone?
Increases bone resorption of Ca2+ and phosphate
What effect does thyroid hormone have on lipolysis?
Lipolysis is stimulated
What effect will low serum phosphate have the kidney?
The kidney will produce more 1-25-OH2 Vit D which will increase phosphate release from bone matrix and increase Ca2+ and phosphate absorption in the GIT
What enzyme deficiency will produce BOTH hypertension and masculinization of females?
11-Beta hydroxylase deficiency 11-deoxycorticosterone will act as a mineralocorticoid
What enzyme in the kidney is stimulated that affects vitamin D metabolism?
PTH stimulates 1-alpha-hydroxylase cause increased production of 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D.
What happens to the corpus lutem if progesterone levels fall without fertilization?
The corpus luteum regresses and menstration occurs
What happens to the corpus lutem if progesterone levels with fertilization?
The corpus luteum is maintained by hCG acting like LH which maintains both estrogen and progesterone levels.
What hormonal changes are seen with untreated menopause with respect to estrogen, FSH, LH, GnRH?
Decreased estrogen Increased FSH (Greatly) Increased LH (No surge) Increased GnRH
What hormone predominates during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle?
Progesterone
What is the key regulator of PTH secretion?
Decrease in free serum Ca2+ increases PTH secretion. Increased Ca2+ feedback inhibits PTH secretion.
What is the key regulator that increases Calcitonin secretion?
Increased serum Ca2+
What is the most common cause of congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
21-Beta hydroxylase deficiency
What is the physiologic source of hCG?
The syncytiotrophoblasts of the placenta
What is the primary organ that converts Vit D to 25-OH Vit D?
Liver
What is the primary source of androstenedione?
Adrenal glands
What is the role of calcitonin in normal calcium homeostasis?
Probably not important as PTH is the primary regulator of calcium homeostasis.

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What is the VERY first molecule in the pathway for the synthesis of Aldosterone? Cortisol? Adrenal androgens?
Cholesterol
What is thought to be the cause of menopause?
Cessation of estrogen production due to decline in the number of follicles
What overall effects does PTH have on body electolytes?
PTH increases serum Ca 2+, decreases serum phosphates, increases urine phosphates
What signal from the body decreases TRH secretion?
Thyroid hormones, T3
What substance is used by the brain for energy during starvation?
Ketone bodies
What will the levels of Ca2+, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase be in hyperparathyroidism?
Increased Ca2+, decreased phosphate, increased alkaline phosphatase
What will the levels of Ca2+, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase be in osteoporosis?
No changes in Ca2+, phosphate, or alkaline phosphatase
What will the levels of Ca2+, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase be in Paget's disease of bone?
Alkaline phosphatase increased with normal Ca2+ and phosphate
What will the levels of Ca2+, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase be in renal insufficiency?
Decreased Ca2+, increased phosphate, and alkaline phosphates WNL
What will the levels of Ca2+, phosphate, and alkaline phosphatase be in Vit D intoxication?
Increased Ca2+ and phosphate with alkaline phosphatase WNL
Which ducts (Mullerian or Wolfian) are promoted by androgens?
Wolfian ducts are differentiated into the internal gonadal structures.
Why is hCG so useful for detecting pregnancy?
It is detectable in the blood and urine 8 days after successful fertilization.
Why is hormone replacement therapy used in postmenopausal women?
Decrease hot flashes and decrease bone loss. Decreased risk of heart disease could be on the boards but is no longer true (2001).
Will most steroids in the blood be bound or unbound?
Bound to specific binding globulins Steroids are lipophilic
You would expect the body temperature of a patient with hyperthroidism to be?
Elevated Thyroid hormone increases Na/K ATPase activity => increased consumption of O2 => increased temp
A decrease in PA O2 will have what effect on the pulmonary vasculature?
Causes hypoxic vasoconstriction that shifts blood awayfrom poorly ventilated regions
A value of infinity for V/Q indicates?
Blood flow obstruction
A ZERO value for V/Q indicates?
Airway obstruction
Bicarbonate in the RBC is transported out of the cell in exchange for what ion?
Cl- by a HCO3-/Cl- antiport
Cor pulmonale is the result of?
Pulmonary hypertension
Cor pulmonale will lead to what condition of the heart?
Right ventricular failure (jugular venous distention, edema, hepatomegaly)
Dissociation of CO2 from Hb upon oxygenation in the lungs is known as?
The Haldane effect
Exercise (increased cardiac output) will have what effect on V/Q to the apex?
The V/Q will approach 1 (from 3) as a result of dilation of vessels in the apex.
In the apex of the lung, V/Q should be >1, =1, or <1?
V/Q > 1. NL = 3 which indicates wasted ventilation.
In the base of the lung, V/Q should be >1, =1, or <1?
V/Q < 1. NL = 0.6 which indicates wasted perfusion.
In the perpheral tissue what factor helps unload oxygen by shifting the curve to the right?
Increased H+ (decreased pH) a.k.a. the Bohr effect
Increased 2,3-DPG will cause a shift in what direction of the oxygen-Hb dissociation curve?
The curve will shift RIGHT. This allows Hb to release more oxygen
Increased erythropoietin levels as a response to high altitudes will have what affect on the blood?
Increase hematocrit and Hb
Neonatal respiratory distress syndrome is due to a deficiency of what?
Surfactant (dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, lecithin)
Perfusion is greatest in what part of the lung?
Both ventilation and perfusion are greater at the base than at the apex.
Recurrent TB grows best in what part of the lung? Why?
Apex because of high O2.
Surfactant role in the lungs is to do what?
Decrease alceolar surface tension
T/F - The pulmorary circulation is a high resistance, low compliance system.
F. It has low resistance and high compliance.
The conversion of CO2 to H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) is catalyzed by what RBC enzyme?
Carbonic Anhydrase
The kidneys would do what to compensate for respiratory alkalosis as a response to high altitude?
Excrete bicarbonate
The predominant form of CO2 transport from the tissues to the lungs is?
HCO3- (bicarbonate) accounts for 90%, followed by Hb bound CO2 (5%) and dissolved CO2 (5%)
TV+IRV+ERV = ? TV = tidal volume, IRV = inspirartory reserve volume, ERV = expiratory reserve volume
Vital capacity. VC is everything but the residual volume.
Ventilation is greatest in what part of the lung?
Both ventilation and perfusion are greater at the base than at the apex.
What 6 factors decrease O2 affinity to Hb/decrease P50? What direction does the O2-Hb dissociation curve shift?
Decrease metabolic needs, dcr PCO2, dcr temperature, increased pH, dcr 2,3-DPG, and Fetal Hb The curve shifts LEFT.
What are some potential side effects of ACE inhibitors?
Cough and angioedema due to decreased bradykinin
What cellular change could you expect as a response to high altitude?
Increased mitochondria
What enzyme in the lungs is a key enzyme in the renin-angiotensin system?
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) which converts Ang I to Ang II
What is expiratory reserve volume?
Air that can still be breathed out after normal expiration
What is FRC? How is it calculated?
FRC is the flume in the lungs after normal respiration and is the sum of RV +ERV.
What is inspiratory reserve volume?
Air in excess of the tidal volume that moves into the lungs with maximum inspiration
What is residual volume?
Air in the lung at maximal expiration
What is the bodies acute reponse to a change from low to high altitude?
Increase in ventilation
What is the difference between capacites and volumes in the lung?
Capacities are the sum of >= 2 volumes.
What is the Total Lung Capacity? Normal Value?
IRV + TV + ERV + RV or VC + RV Normal would be ~ 6.0 L
What is tidal volume? What is a normal TV value?
Air that moves into the lung with each quiet expiration. 500 mL is normal
What would be the effect on the heart due to chronic hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (High altitude)?
Right ventricular hypertrophy
Would you expect acidosis or alkalosis due as a response to high altitude? Metabolic or Respiratory?
Respiratory alakalosis
Exocrine secretion of zymogens by secretory acini is stimulated by what?
-Acetylcholine -CCK
Five effects of Parasympathetic GI Innervation:
1. Increase production of saliva 2. Increase gastric H+ secretion 3. Increases pancreatic enzyme and HCO3- secretion 4. Stimulates evteric nervous system to creat intestinal peristalsis 5. Relaxes sphincters
Five main components of gastric secretions and their sources?
-Mucus (Mucous cell) -Intrinsic factor (Parietal cell) -H+ (Parietal cell) -Pepsinogen (Chief cell) -Gastrin (G cell in antrum and duodenum)
Four categories of drugs that inhibit/decrease secretion of gastric acid:
1. Proton pump inhibitors (omeprazole) 2. H2 receptor antagonists (Rantidine, Cimetidine, Famotidine) 3. Anticholinergics 4. Prostaglandin receptor antagonists (Misoprostol)
Four effects of Sympathetic GI Innervation:
1. Increase production of saliva 2. Decreases splanchnic blood flow in fight-or-flight response 3. Decreases motility 4. Constricts Sphincters
Four functions of H+ secreted in the stomach?
-Kills bacteria -Breaks down food -Lowers pH to optimal range for pepsin function (conversion of pepsinoget) -Sterilizes chyme
Four functions of Samatostatin?
1. Inhibits Gastric acid and pepsinogen secretion 2. Inhibits pancreatic and small intestine fluid secretion 3. Gallbladder contraction 4. Release of both insulin and glucagon
From what cells is bile secreted?
hepatocytes
Function of Gastrin secreted in the stomach?
Stimulates secretion of HCl, IF, and pepsinogen (also stimulates gastric motility)
Function of Intrinsic factor secreted in the stomach?
Binding protein required for vitamin B12 absorption (in terminal ileum)
How do you treat Pancreatic Insufficiency?
-Limit fat intake -Monitor for signs of fat-soluble vitamin (A,D,E,K) deficiency
How does jaundice manifest in the body?
yellow skin and sclerae
How much urobilinogen is secreted per day?
4mg
In what form is bilirubin secreted by the kidney?
urobilirubin
In what form is bilirubin secreted in the feces?
stercobilin
Name as many Pancreatic enzymes as you can:
-alpha-amylase -lipase -phospholipase A -colipase -proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidases) -trypsinogen (trypsin)
Name the major product of heme metabolism that is actively taken up ty hepatocytes:
Bilirubin
Name the organ and enzyme family involved in the production of bilirubin?
Nonerythroid enzymes in the liver
Name the three salivary secretory glands:
-Parotic -Submandibular -Sublingual
Name two potent stimulators of Gastrin:
1. Phenylalanine 2. Tryptophan
Secretin's nickname?
Nature's antacid
SEE PICTURE ON LAST PAGE OF GI PHYSIOLOGY!!!
SEE PICTURE ON LAST PAGE OF GI PHYSIOLOGY!!!
Three main functions of CCK?
1. Stimulates gallbladder contraction 2. Stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion 3. Inhibits gastric emptying
Two functions of Secretin?
1. Stimulates pancreatic HCO3 secretion 2. Inhibits gastric acid secretion
Two functions of the mucus secreted in the stomach?
-Lubricant -protects surface from H+
What activates all the proteases?
trypsin
What are the products of oligosaccharide hydrolase action?
Monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose)
What are the products of starch hydrolysis by pancreatic amylase?
Oligosaccharides, maltose and maltotriose
What are the products of the hydrolysis of carbohydrate alpha-1,4 linkages by salivary amylase?
maltose, maltotriose and alpha-limit dextrans
What are the three main functions of saliva?
1. Begin starch digestion 2. Neutralize oral bacterial acids which maintains dental health 3. Lubricate food
What are the two main sources of bilirubin in the body?
-Hepatic production by nonerythroid enzymes -Metabolism of heme from red blood cells (120 day life span) and incomplete or immature erythroid cells
What causes pain to worsen in Cholelithiasis?
Eating fatty foods which cause CCK release
What component of GI secretion is 'not essetial for digestion?'
Gastric acid
What condition results from elevated bilirubin levels?
Jaundice
What disease is commonly associated with pancreatic insufficiency?
Cystic Fibrosis
What do pancreatic ducts secrete when stimulated by secretin?
-mucus -alkaline fluid
What does inadequate gastric acid cause?
Increased risk of Salmonella infections
What enzyme converts trypsinogen to trypsin?
enterokinase (a duodenal brushborder enzyme)
What enzyme hydrolyzes starch?
Pancreatic amylase
What enzyme is involved in the rate-limiting step in carbohydrate digestion?
Oligosaccaride hydrolases
What enzyme starts digestion and hydrolyzes alpha-1,4 linkages?
Salivary Amylase
What form are the proteases secreted in?
proenzyme form
What form is Alpha-amylase secreted in?
active form
What hormone decreases absorption of substances needed for growth)
Somatostatin
What inhibits the release of gastrin and secretin?
Somatostatin
What is pancreatic amylase in highest concentration?
In the duodenal lumen
What is the composition of bile? (5)
-bile salts -phospholipids -cholesterol -bilirubin -water
What is the fate of pepsinogen?
Broken down to pepsin (a protease) by H+
What is the function (fxn) of Pepsin?
Begins protein digestion (optimal pH = 1.0 - 3.0
What is the function of Alpha-amylase?
starch digestion
What is the function of proteases?
protein digestion
What is the function of VIP?
-pancreatic HCO3- secretion - intibition of gastric H+ secretion
What is the function on Nitrous Oxide?
Causes smooth muscle relaxation
What is the major stimulus for secretion of enzyme-rich fluid by pancreatic acinar cells?
Cholecystokinin
What is the major stimulus for zymogen release, but a poor stimulus for bicarbonate secretion?
Acetylcholine
What is the only types of carbohydrate that is absorbed?
Monosacharides
What is the primary location over bacterial conversion or conjugated bilirubin to urobilinogen?
Colon
What is Zollinger-Ellison syndrome? What is the main manifestation?
1. Hypersecretion of Gastrin 2. Peptic ulcers
What manifestations are seen in pancreatic insufficiency?
-malabsorption -stratorrhea (greasy, malodorous stool)
What regulates bicarbonate secretion?
Stimulated by secretin, potentiated by vagal input and CCK
What regulates CCK secretion?
Stimulated by fatty acids and amino acids
What regulates Gastrin secretion?
-Stimulated by stomach distension, amino acids, peptides, and vagus -Inhibited by secretin and stomach acid pH less than 1.5
What regulates secretion of secretin?
Stimulated by acid and fatty acids in lumen of duodenum
What regulates secretion of Somatostatin?
-Stimulated by acid -Inhibited by vagus
What special characteristic do bile salts possess?
They are amphipathic (contain both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains)
What special characteristic does the conjugated form of bilirubin possess?
It is water soluble.
What substance stimulates ductal cells to secrete bicarbonate-rich fluid?
Secretin
What three enzymes aid in fat digestion?
1. Lipase 2. Phospholipase A 3. Colipase
What trasport is utilized in glucose absorption across cell membrane?
Sodium-glucose-coupled transporter
What two conditions are caused be autoimmune destruction of parietal cells?
-Chronic Gastritis -Pernicious Anemia
What type(s) of innervation stimulate salivary secretion?
BOTH Sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Where are the oligosaccharide hydrolase enzymes located?
At the brush border of the intestine
Where does bilirubin conjugation take place?
Liver
Where does glucose absorption occur?
Duodenum and proximal Jejunum
Where does heme catabolism take place?
In the Reticuloendothelial System
Where is bicarbonate secreted and what does it do?
-Surface mucosal cells of stomach and duodenum -Neutralizes acid -Present in the unstirred layer preventing autodigestion
Where is Cholecystokinin (CCK) secreted?
I cells of duodenum and jejunum
Where is Secretin secreted?
S cells of duodenum
Where is Somatostatin secreted?
D cells in pancreatic islets and GI mucosa
Where is Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) secreted
Smooth muscle nerves of the intestines
Which component of bile makes up the greatest percentage?
Water (97%)
Which component of bile solubilizes lipids in micelles for absorption?
Bile salts
Which component of saliva begins starch digestion?
Alpha-amylase (ptyalin)
Which component of saliva lubricates food?
Mucins (glycoproteins)
Why do we need alkaline pancreatic juice in the duodenum?
To neutralize gastric acid, allowing pancreatic enzymes to function